Cruciferous vegetables, genetic polymorphisms in glutathione S-transferases M1 and T1, and prostate cancer risk. Felker P, Bunch R, Leung AM. 2000;9(10):1017-1020. One challenge in studying the relationships between cruciferous vegetable intake and disease risk in humans is dissociating the benefits of whole diets that are generally rich in vegetables from those that are specifically rich in cruciferous vegetables (11). Liability for individual actions or omissions based upon the contents of this site is expressly disclaimed. Cruciferous vegetables and human cancer risk: epidemiologic evidence and mechanistic basis. Of note, boiling cruciferous vegetables has also been found to reduce their glucosinolate content to a much greater extent than steam cooking, microwaving, and stir-frying do (5). Mustard greens 12. 1983;18(2):123-201. 2010;126(6):2234-2242. (PubMed), 14. Glucosinolates and their breakdown derivatives (metabolites), especially isothiocyanates and indole-3-carbinol, exert a variety of biological activities that may be relevant to health promotion and disease prevention in humans (see the MIC articles on Indole-3-Carbinol and Isothiocyanates). ; 2015. US Department of Health and Human Services and US Department of Agriculture. However, further analyses showed that the association between cruciferous vegetable intake and MI events was significant in individuals with two functional GSTT1 alleles but not in carriers of two alleles of the GSTT1 null variant (-/-) (28). [Your name] is not affiliated or endorsed by the Linus Pauling Institute or Oregon State University. (PubMed), 54. 2009;12(1):115-121. ... Be careful when feeding vegetables in the cabbage family (cruciferous vegetables): Cabbage, Broccoli (plus its leaves, including purple sprouting varieties), Cauliflower (and the leaves), Brussels (leaves and sprouts), Collard Greens, Garden Cress. Cruciferous vegetables and risk of colorectal neoplasms: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Colorful fruits and vegetables like blueberries and broccoli are often mistaken for nightshades. Nutrition experts often refer to brassica vegetables as "functional foods." But oftentimes, when researchers study cruciferous vegetables or health articles mention them, they highlight broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbages and kale. Since most cruciferous vegetables are cooked prior to eating, bacterial myrosinase-like activity in the gut rather than plant myrosinase is responsible for the initial step in glucosinolate degradation (Figure 2). Oregon State University, Updated in December 2016 by: (PubMed), 28. Two mechanisms can potentially explain this effect. Wu QJ, Yang Y, Wang J, Han LH, Xiang YB. PLoS One. (PubMed), 36. Barba FJ, Nikmaram N, Roohinejad S, Khelfa A, Zhu Z, Koubaa M. Bioavailability of glucosinolates and their breakdown products: impact of processing. The highest versus lowest intake of cruciferous vegetables (assessed before diagnosis) was associated with a better survival rate over 72 months after diagnosis in 547 women with lung cancer (50). Urinary total isothiocyanate (ITC) in a population-based sample of middle-aged and older Chinese in Singapore: relationship with dietary total ITC and glutathione S-transferase M1/T1/P1 genotypes. The 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend eating a variety of vegetables daily (2½ cup-equivalents/day for a 2,000 calorie diet) from all of the five vegetable subgroups (dark green, red and orange, legumes, starchy, and other; see 58). (PubMed), 45. Nutr Cancer. (PubMed), 29. (PubMed), 20. 2007;55(3):224-236. Yet, when plant cells are damaged, myrosinase is released and comes in contact with glucosinolates, catalyzing their conversion into highly reactive metabolites. J Nutr. Zhang X, Shu XO, Xiang YB, et al. Brussels sprouts 5. Metabolism of isothiocyanates in individuals with positive and null GSTT1 and M1 genotypes after drinking watercress juice. A case-control study conducted in 2,042 subjects (ages, <75 years) who survived a first acute myocardial infarction (MI), and matched healthy controls with no CVD history found that the individuals in the highest versus lowest tertile of cruciferous vegetable intakes (6 times/week versus <1 time/week) had 27% lower odds of MI (28). Swiss chard is a leafy, cruciferous vegetable with green leaves with stems in a rainbow of colors, depending on the variety. Rapid and sustainable detoxication of airborne pollutants by broccoli sprout beverage: results of a randomized clinical trial in China. Br J Nutr. Before gorging on crucifers, heed a few cautions. Genetic variations in the sequence of genes coding for GSTs may affect the activity of these enzymes. Yet, whether potential protection conferred by isothiocyanates via the Nrf2-dependent pathway is diminished in individuals carrying GST-/- variants is currently unknown. 2011;106(3):408-416. (PubMed), 35. Armah CN, Derdemezis C, Traka MH, et al. acephala) are the major leaf vegetables.The first three crops belong to the family Chenopodiaceae and the last one to Cruciferae (Brassicaceae). Breed Sci. Such variations have been identified in humans. J Nutr. 2016;80:247-279. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 307 Linus Pauling Science Center Cruciferous vegetables are unique in that they are a rich source of sulfur-containing compounds called glucosinolates (β-thioglucoside N-hydroxysulfates) that impart a pungent aroma and spicy (some say bitter) taste (Figure 1). 2003;17(1-4):115-130. Cancer Causes Control. It has been proposed that a reduced GST activity in these individuals would slow the rate of excretion of isothiocyanates, thereby increasing tissue exposure to isothiocyanates after cruciferous vegetable consumption (15). Verkerk R, Schreiner M, Krumbein A, et al. Collard greens 8. There is still time to make a charitable donation to the Micronutrient Information Center in 2020. Glucosinolates in Brassica vegetables: the influence of the food supply chain on intake, bioavailability and human health. Arugula (rocket) 2. High intakes of fruit and vegetables have been consistently associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) (24, 25). Clin Nutr. McMillan M, Spinks EA, Fenwick GR. Intake of vegetables, legumes, and fruit, and risk for all-cause, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality in a European diabetic population. Around 130 glucosinolate structures have been described to date (3), but only a subset can be found in the human diet. (PubMed), 4. (PubMed), 53. In the past decades, some observational studies have examined the effect of individuals’ genetic variations on the relationship between cruciferous vegetable intake and the risk of different cancer types. GSTT1 and GSTP1 polymorphisms and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis. In addition, GSTs are involved in "detoxifying" potentially harmful substances like carcinogens, suggesting that individuals with reduced GST activity might also be more susceptible to cancer (19-21). 2015;59(5):918-926. Br J Nutr. Phytochemistry. Wang X, Ouyang Y, Liu J, et al. Sergentanis TN, Economopoulos KP. Dyba M, Wang A, Noone AM, et al. Cover and cook the Swiss chard until tender, (about 2-10 minutes, dependent if you use baby chard or regular chard.) Nutr Rev. In a feeding study involving 45 healthy subjects, the mean conversion rate of glucosinolates (of which 85% was glucoraphanin) to dithiocarbamates over a 24-hour period was estimated to be around 12% with wide variations among participants (range, 1.1 to 40.7%) (7). However, differences in individuals’ capacity to metabolize glucosinolates have not been linked to differences in gut microbiota composition (9). Concentrations of thiocyanate and goitrin in human plasma, their precursor concentrations in brassica vegetables, and associated potential risk for hypothyroidism. Ann Oncol. And everyone’s favorite cruciferous veggie, broccoli, is also not on the nightshade vegetable list. The lack of information regarding cooking methods prevented data adjustment to reduce bias. Join our campaign supporters to help sustain this valuable resource. Front Nutr. (PubMed), 21. (PubMed), 9. Observational studies: cohort and case-control studies. 2013;22(3):309-313. Xu C, Zeng XT, Liu TZ, et al. Preparation is much like that of any green leafy vegetable, so if you'd like to use up leftover greens from another recipes, this dish would also … Zhao J, Zhao L. Cruciferous vegetables intake is associated with lower risk of renal cell carcinoma: evidence from a meta-analysis of observational studies. Diagn Pathol. Int J Cancer. In contrast, cruciferous vegetable consumption in a cohort of 11,390 women with stage I-III invasive breast cancer (from four US and Chinese prospective studies), assessed about two years after diagnosis, was not found to be associated with risk of cancer recurrence or total mortality (53). Plast Reconstr Surg. Additionally, because of the high amount of calcium found in crucifers (especially kale, Chinese cabbage, and broccoli), they protect bone density and may help prevent the onset of osteoporosis, particularly in women. (PubMed), 7. Whether the effect of glucosinolates on cholesterol metabolism might be beneficial in the prevention of CVD needs further investigation. 2009;53 Suppl 2:S219. Hum Toxicol. 2013;31(1):127-133. It is also very low in calories: a helping of 36 grams contains just 7 calories but also half the daily recommended intake of vitamin A and all of that for vitamin K. The Nrf2 cell defence pathway: Keap1-dependent and -independent mechanisms of regulation. One characteristic that sets cruciferous vegetables apart from other vegetables is their high glucosinolate content (see Introduction). Tse G, Eslick GD. Therefore, following the ingestion of cooked cruciferous vegetables, the conversion of glucosinolates into isothiocyanates by gut bacteria appears to be a limiting step in the generation of dithiocarbamates (7). Li F, Hullar MA, Beresford SA, Lampe JW. Postdiagnosis cruciferous vegetable consumption and breast cancer outcomes: a report from the After Breast Cancer Pooling Project. However, studies in humans have shown varying results. Liu RH. Swiss chard, spinach and beet greens are examples of greens that are best eaten cooked. No separate recommendations have been established for cruciferous vegetables, yet the 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend that adults consume 1½-2½ cup-equivalents of dark-green vegetables (which include cruciferous vegetables) per week (58). Protection of humans by plant glucosinolates: efficiency of conversion of glucosinolates to isothiocyanates by the gastrointestinal microflora. Spitz MR, Duphorne CM, Detry MA, et al. Li LY, Luo Y, Lu MD, Xu XW, Lin HD, Zheng ZQ. What is SWISS CHARD? Biofactors. Cruciferous vegetable consumption and gastric cancer risk: a meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Vieira AR, Vingeliene S, Chan DS, et al. Ishida M, Hara M, Fukino N, Kakizaki T, Morimitsu Y. Glucosinolate metabolism, functionality and breeding for the improvement of Brassicaceae vegetables. People used to believe parsley was toxic to … Kale 9. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. Fruits and vegetables and endometrial cancer risk: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Cruciferous vegetable consumption and lung cancer risk: a systematic review. Hu J, Hu Y, Hu Y, Zheng S. Intake of cruciferous vegetables is associated with reduced risk of ovarian cancer: a meta-analysis. 2010;29(6):813-818. (PubMed), 18. The hydrolysis of progoitrin, found in cruciferous vegetables (see Figure 1), may yield a compound known as goitrin, which may interfere with thyroid hormone synthesis. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). World J Urol. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2014;9:7. Only a few shine a spotlight on Swiss chard, […] Bandera EV, Kushi LH, Moore DF, Gifkins DM, McCullough ML. (Nutrition), Eczema : Prescription Medication Options Table, Leafy greens and other cruciferous vegetables, Aphrodisiacs: tantalizing the sexual appetite, Health benefits of green, black, and white tea, Fuelling an athlete's Olympic spirit: Priscilla Lopes-Schliep, How to make the pickiest eater enjoy eating, Okinawa: nutrition lessons for longer life, Study: Mercury in fish may not harm seniors' brain function, An apple a day really can keep the doctor away. Spinach, lettuce, Swiss chard, leeks, and cruciferous vegetables like Brussels sprouts and bok choy by20% Discount 2009;54(2):87-96. However, increased exposure to thiocyanate ions from cruciferous vegetable consumption or, more commonly, from cigarette smoking, does not appear to increase the risk of hypothyroidism unless accompanied by iodine deficiency. The term "cruciferous vegetables" refers to the common cultivars in the Brassicaceae or Cruciferae family with cross-bearing flowers, hence their other name "crucifers." 2013;8(10):e75732. Cancer Sci. (PubMed), 27. Cornelis MC, El-Sohemy A, Campos H. GSTT1 genotype modifies the association between cruciferous vegetable intake and the risk of myocardial infarction. You may hyperlink to this website but must include the following statement: "This link leads to a website provided by the Linus Pauling Institute at Oregon State University. Pharmacol Res. Steck SE, Gammon MD, Hebert JR, Wall DE, Zeisel SH. Am J Clin Nutr. In any case, the many benefits of crucifers far outweigh the small negatives. Sci Rep. 2015;5:10306. 2013;22(8):1451-1456. bengalensis), and kale (Brassica oleracea var. Together with allium vegetables, they are known for their cancer-fighting abilities, among other beneficial properties. Fresh fruits and Vegetables Get fresh Leafy greens. Of these, spinach beet is primarily grown in the tropics, usually during winter. Other non-nightshade vegetables in the goosefoot family are spinach and Swiss chard. Arugula is a member of the Brassica, or Cruciferous, family. (PubMed), 40. Originally written in 2005 by: Curr Microbiol. (PubMed), 39. Many of these compounds likely contribute to the potential health-promoting benefits of cruciferous vegetables. 2.  International Agency for Research on Cancer. Diet rich in high glucoraphanin broccoli reduces plasma LDL cholesterol: Evidence from randomised controlled trials. (PubMed), 11. Liu X, Lv K. Cruciferous vegetables intake is inversely associated with risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis. 2012;131(1):201-210. Swiss chard is the second most healthy vegetable on the planet and is king of the cruciferous vegetable world when it comes to nutrition packed foods. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. There is also a significant body of evidence suggesting that GSTM1+/+ individuals gain greater cancer protection from consumption total cruciferous vegetables or broccoli compared to GSTM1-/- variant carriers (25, 48, 49). 58. In the Shanghai Women’s Health Study (mean follow-up, 10.2 years) and the Shanghai Men’s Health Study (mean follow-up, 4.6 years), which included a total of 134,796 Chinese adults, participants in the highest versus lowest quintile of cruciferous vegetable intakes had a 22% reduced risk of all cause-mortality and a 31% reduced risk of CVD-related mortality (26). 2012;77:16-45. A recent intervention study demonstrated that cruciferous vegetables could increase the detoxification of carcinogens and other xenobiotics in humans. When raw cruciferous vegetables are chopped during the cooking process, glucosinolates are rapidly hydrolyzed by myrosinase, generating metabolites that are then absorbed in the proximal intestine. ... As a nutritionist, Christa often gets asked if cruciferous vegetables can cause or worsen thyroid issues. These greens contain oxalic acid that can leach calcium from the bone. We recommend that you treat Swiss chard as a nutrient-rich and health-supportive food that can help to round out your daily intake of green vegetables. Lyon, France: IARC; 2004:1-12. 2016;3:24. Swiss chard (snijbiet in Dutch, blette in French) is another hardy winter vegetable that packs a lot of nutrients. Luang-In V, Albaser AA, Nueno-Palop C, Bennett MH, Narbad A, Rossiter JT. https://www.organicfacts.net/cruciferous-vegetables-list.html 2014;7(8):813-823. This scientific name is given to vegetables that research has proven may provide protection against certain cancers. 8th ed. In intact plant cells, myrosinase is physically separated from glucosinolates. (PubMed), 33. 2009;18(1):184-195. When chopped, chewed, and digested, glucosinolates are converted into compounds (indoles and isothiocyanates) that act to prevent normal cells from becoming cancerous cells by stimulating the body to clear potential cancer-causing agents (carcinogens). Swiss chard. New Phytol. Kohlrabi 10. 7 holiday foods to savour - in moderation, Take-out time: Why you should try Greek food, Take-out time: Why you should try Middle Eastern food, Take-out time: Why you should try Thai food, 7 things you need to know about non-dairy coffee creamer. (PubMed), 55. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. This mechanism is meant to increase the solubility of isothiocyanates, thereby promoting a rapid excretion in the urine. (PubMed), 15. Most meta-analyses found inverse associations between cruciferous vegetable intake and risk of bladder, breast, colorectal, endometrial, gastric, lung, ovarian, pancreatic, prostate, and renal cancer. Spinach (Spinacea oleracea), Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris var. Glucosinolate structures in evolution. 2014;64(1):48-59. 2003;90(3):687-697. 2015;24(1):101-109. The information on dietary factors and supplements, food, and beverages contained on this website does not cover all possible uses, actions, precautions, side effects, and interactions. Soy This classification includes mostly cruciferous vegetables, such as Brussels sprouts, kale, cauliflower, and broccoli. Be sure to … The many different types of green vegetables available to provide … Am J Clin Nutr. 2015;13:44. Senior Research Scientist (PubMed), 30. From The Food Lover's Companion, Fourth edition by Sharon Tyler Herbst and Ron Herbst. The Brassicaceae family, which includes the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, comprises approximately 375 genera and over 3,000 species (1). (PubMed), 19. Packed with vitamins and minerals (some crucifers have more than others), these vegetables boast impressive nutritional qualities and potent anticancer properties. (PubMed), 25. Victoria J. Drake, Ph.D. Cauliflower 7. Like most other vegetables, cruciferous vegetables are good sources of a variety of nutrients and phytochemicals that synergistically contribute to health promotion (see Bioactive compounds in cruciferous vegetables) (10). The results of a pooled analysis of five case-control studies also suggested a stronger association between cruciferous vegetable intake and lung cancer in carriers of both the GSTT1-/- and GSTM1-/- variants compared to carriers of wild-type alleles (+/+); however, it was not reported whether results from these two groups of individuals were significantly different (39). The information should not be used in place of a consultation with a competent health care or nutrition professional. For example, a pooled analysis of two prospective cohort studies and six case-control studies found an inverse association between cruciferous vegetable consumption and risk of colorectal neoplasm in carriers of the GSTT1 null variant but not in individuals with the GSTM1 null variant or those with both the GSTT1and GSTM1 null variants (-/-) (36). Cancer Med. The composition and content of glucosinolates in cruciferous vegetables are relatively stable, yet depend on the genus and species and can vary with plant growing and post-harvest storage conditions and culinary processing (7, 8). A cruciferous vegetable, chard is a good source of vitamins A and C, as well as iron. World J Surg Oncol. J Natl Cancer Inst. Cruciferous vegetables consumption and the risk of female lung cancer: a prospective study and a meta-analysis. It is not intended as nutritional or medical advice for individual problems. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. At WHFoods, our outstanding level of green vegetable intake is 8 servings per day. Broccoli is a cruciferous vegetable, and is related to bok choy, cabbage, kale, and swiss chard. 2014;66(1):128-139. Fenwick GR, Heaney RK, Mullin WJ. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. (PubMed), 41. Broccoli and broccoli sprouts 4. (PubMed), 13. Cruciferous or Brassica vegetables are so named because they come from plants in the family known to botanists and biologists as Cruciferae or alternately, Brassicaceae. Cruciferous vegetables intake and the risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis of observational studies. GSTM1, GSTT1, GSTP1, and GSTA1 polymorphisms and urinary isothiocyanate metabolites following broccoli consumption in humans. Jane Higdon, Ph.D. Nutr Cancer. (PubMed). Prospective study of fruit and vegetable intake and risk of prostate cancer. (PubMed), 10. In addition to it's beneficial nutrition facts, swiss chard also has a bit of interesting history. 2014;25(12):1645-1658. 2012;5(4):603-611. Dietary intake of isothiocyanates: evidence of a joint effect with glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms in lung cancer risk. Chapter nine - Health benefits of glucosinolates. Mol Nutr Food Res. Yet, few observational studies have specifically examined the potential benefits of cruciferous vegetable consumption. Detoxification of electrophilic compounds by glutathione S-transferase catalysis: determinants of individual response to chemical carcinogens and chemotherapeutic drugs? Variation of glucoraphanin metabolism in vivo and ex vivo by human gut bacteria. Add the remaining chard, when the first half has wilted. Oregon State University, Reviewed in April 2017 by: Researchers have isolated sulfur-containing phytochemicals called glucosinolates abundant in cruciferous vegetables with the potential to inhibit cancer. Coles BF, Kadlubar FF. Bryan HK, Olayanju A, Goldring CE, Park BK. 2015;94(17):e759. They include: 1. Bai Y, Wang X, Zhao S, Ma C, Cui J, Zheng Y. Sulforaphane protects against cardiovascular disease via Nrf2 activation. Linus Pauling Institute Cancer Prev Res (Phila). Very high intakes of cruciferous vegetables, such as cabbage and turnips, have been found to cause hypothyroidism (insufficient production of thyroid hormones) in animals (54). Liu B, Mao Q, Lin Y, Zhou F, Xie L. The association of cruciferous vegetables intake and risk of bladder cancer: a meta-analysis. Egner PA, Chen JG, Zarth AT, et al. The method of cooking cruciferous vegetables, which strongly affects the bioavailability and potential anticancer benefits of isothiocyanates (see Metabolism and Bioavailability of Glucosinolates) may be a source of bias and explain variation in the results of the studies (heterogeneity among studies). 1986;5(1):15-19. Medicine (Baltimore). SWISS CHARD is a peppery, distinctive-tasting green that originated in the Mediterranean region. In rats and mice, indoles and isothiocyanates have been found to prevent cancer development in bladder, breast, colon, liver, lung and stomach. (PubMed). Eur J Cancer. Cruciferous vegetables include Swiss chard, broccoli, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, watercress, radish, rapini, arugula, spinach, turnip, kale, and bok choy. Nechuta S, Caan BJ, Chen WY, et al. Maria Traka, Ph.D. Parsley: Curly or Italian, It's Your Choice. For … Vegetable and fruit intake after diagnosis and risk of prostate cancer progression. In contrast, boiling cruciferous vegetables before consumption inactivates myrosinase, thus preventing the breakdown of glucosinolates. (PubMed), 51. Intakes of fruits, vegetables and carbohydrate and the risk of CVD. (PubMed), 34. 2007;137(4):904-909. Add beans/chickpeas and … Fruits, vegetables, and bladder cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Breast. Glucosinolate and desulfo-glucosinolate metabolism by a selection of human gut bacteria. Public Health Nutr. In a cohort of 2,121 German participants in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC study), glucobrassicin, sinigrin, glucoraphasatin (dehydroerucin), glucoraphanin, and glucoiberin were found to contribute most to total glucosinolate intake (4). 2011;94(1):240-246. These are the vegetables, also called brassica vegetables, whose four-petal flowers form the shape of a cross – cruciferous means "cross-bearing.". Ann Oncol. Am J Clin Nutr. However, if you like to eat green leafy vegetables on a daily basis, I have discovered that Swiss chard is not only listed as a non-goitrogenic food, but it has many of the same vitamins and minerals as kale. Barbara Delage, Ph.D. Cabbage 6. The next time you're planning a meal, reach for cruciferous vegetables, whether they be tried-and-true favourites or new and exciting options. Potential synergy of phytochemicals in cancer prevention: mechanism of action. Breast Cancer Res Treat. How do I decide what food choices are healthy? The hydrolysis of another class of glucosinolates, known as indole glucosinolates, results in the release of thiocyanate ions (see Figure 2) that can compete with iodine for uptake by the thyroid gland (55). 2004;134(12 Suppl):3479S-3485S. Food and Health Programme 2007;99(15):1200-1209. In contrast, 70%-75% of ingested isothiocyanates were found to be metabolized to dithiocarbamates. Many, but not all, commonly consumed cruciferous vegetables come from the Brassica genus; examples include broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, collard greens, kale, kohlrabi, mustard, rutabaga, turnips, bok choy, and Chinese cabbage (2). , Yu T. cruciferous vegetables consumption and gastric cancer risk primarily grown in the small intestine, but only subset! 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Use chard in vegetarian lasagnas, omelets or frittatas GST-/- variants is currently unknown cornelis,... Be beneficial in the refrigerator in large, airy plastic bags metabolites broccoli. Review and dose-response meta-analysis of observational studies endorsed by the gastrointestinal microflora abundant! About 2-10 minutes, dependent if you use baby chard or regular chard. intake, bioavailability human! The first half has wilted sulforaphane from standard and high-glucosinolate broccoli, Chung FL, et al of coding... Nrf2-Dependent pathway is diminished in individuals carrying GST-/- variants is currently is swiss chard a cruciferous vegetable formation of isothiocyanates: evidence from randomised trials... Few cautions this classification includes mostly cruciferous vegetables, such as Brussels sprouts thyroid! 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